Conlangs

<localtag scrollwrap>{{Infobox language
| name          = Ancient Kartara
| nativename    = Ancient Kart́ara
| pronunciation =
| ailname       = Ancient Kardara
| ailpron       =
| states        =
| region        = [[World:Kartara|Kartara]]
| ethnicity     =
| familycolor   = #fe9
| bgcolor       = #fffcf0
| ancestor      =
| script        =
| nation        =
| minority      =
| agency        =
| type          = fusional
| order         = AVP/SV
}}</localtag>

'''Ancient Kartara''' (or, more properly, '''Ancient Kart́ara''') is the oldest known ancestor of the human language families on the island of [[World:Kartara|Kartara]]. It appears to have had some influence on the modern [[Karalome]] language, but does not show signs of being influenced in return. Its most direct daughter language is [[Eastern Kartara]]. Influence from the nearby [[World:The Reems|Reems]] helped mold its other main daughter, [[Western Kartara]].

<div style="float:left">__TOC__</div>
{{Sidebar subpages
|sub1=Verbs|subdesc1=Extensive verb morphology
|sub2=Lexicon|subdesc2=Word list
|sub3=Irregularities|subdesc3=Irregular word forms
|sub4=Examples|subdesc4=Simple and complex translations
|title=Subpages}}
{{clear}}

=={{Term|Phonology}}==

<localtag scrollwrap>
{| class="wikitable tableC"
|-
! Consonant Grid
| labial
| alveolar
| retroflex
| velar
| glottal
|-
| class="r" | stops
| p
| t
| t́
| k
| *
|-
| class="r" | fricatives
| f
| s
| ś
| h
| 
|-
| class="r" | nasals
| m
| n
| ń
| 
| 
|-
| class="r" | approximants
| 
| colspan="2" | r
| 
| 
|-
| class="r" | lateral approximants
| 
| l
| ĺ
| 
| 
|}
</localtag><localtag scrollwrap>
{| class="wikitable tableC"
|-
! Vowel Grid
| front
| near-front
| back
|-
| class="r" | close
| i
|
| u
|-
| class="r" | near-close
|
| &#301;
|
|-
| class="r" | mid
| e
|
| o
|-
| class="r" | open
| a
|
|
|}
</localtag>
Syllables can be generalized to be a vowel, optionally preceded and/or followed by a consonant. Words can only begin with a vowel, a stop, or a fricative, and always end in a vowel.

===Consonants===

Typical Kartara does not differentiate between voiced and unvoiced stops and fricatives. The unvoiced versions are most commonly used, and do not aspirate. The lack of aspiration makes unvoiced consonants sound voiced to most foreigners. For instance:  ''kart́ara'' is has been interpreted by continentals to be "kardara".

When two stops occur next to each other, the first stop is usually aspirated before moving on to the second. For instance: ''pat́ka'' is pronounced [paʈʰka].

Glottal stops are not written, but they always happen between equal vowels (Ex: ''iipke'' [iʔipʰke̞]). They often occur between any two vowels if both are unstressed, and after a stressed vowel before an unstressed '''i'''.

The sound '''r''' can fall under the alveolar or retroflex category, or somewhere in between, depending on the word being used. It is written as one symbol and is thought of as one sound, similar to how English has two ways of presenting it's L sound: clear in 'lake' vs. dark (velarized) in 'cool'. Kartara speakers do not register a difference. (Incidentally, '''l''' and '''ĺ''' are always 'clear'.)

The sound '''h''' does not sound like English h. It is the same as the 'ch' in the Scottish word 'loch' or the German name 'Bach'. It only occurs at the beginning of a word, or at the start or end of a stressed syllable.

Kartara '''f''' sounds similar to English f, but is made only with the lips.

===Vowels===

Front vowels are unrounded, while back vowels are rounded. The vowel sound '''&#301;''' is used to form dipthongs, which gives Kartara the following nine vowels: a, e, i, o, u, a&#301;, e&#301;, o&#301;, and u&#301;. In IPA, therefore, the vowels are represented as [a], [e̞], [i], [o], [u], [aɪ̆], [e̞ɪ̆], [oɪ̆], and [uɪ̆].  Each vowel has its own separate notation.

===Stress Rules===

Verbs are stressed on the third syllable from the end of their participle form, and that syllable remains stressed when the verb is conjugated (e.g. ''akipaĭa'' and its 1st-person conjugate ''akipe'' are both stressed on the ''ki''). For all other words, the next-to-last syllable of the root word receives stress. If the root word has only one syllable, then the stress stays on it. A secondary stress may be added to any important affix to denote importance.

=={{Term|Morphology}}==

===Pronouns===

<localtag scrollwrap>
{| class="wikitable tableC"
|-
! Pronoun Table
| singular
| dual
| paucal
| plural
|-
| class="r" | 1st (inclusive)
| 
| a&#301;kuki
| a&#301;kuru
| a&#301;kuńa
|-
| class="r" | 1st (exclusive)
| husa
| huki
| huru
| huńa
|-
| class="r" | 2nd
| pepa
| piki
| piru
| pińa
|-
| class="r" | 2nd (formal)
| esa
| esaki
| esiru
| esińa
|-
| class="r" | 3rd
| tahi
| taski
| tasaru
| taśńa
|-
| class="r" | 3rd (formal)
| empi
| emki
| emaru
| emuńa
|-
| class="r" | 3rd (inanimate)
| kafa
| style="white-space: nowrap" | kafaki<sup>1</sup>
| style="white-space: nowrap" | kafaru<sup>1</sup>
| kańa
|-
| class="r" | reflexive
| pokaĭ
| style="white-space: nowrap" | pokaĭki<sup>1</sup>
| style="white-space: nowrap" | pokaĭru<sup>1</sup>
| style="white-space: nowrap" | pokaĭńa<sup>1</sup>
|-
| class="r" | reflexive (formal)
| esokaĭ
| style="white-space: nowrap" | esokaĭki<sup>1</sup>
| style="white-space: nowrap" | esokaĭru<sup>1</sup>
| style="white-space: nowrap" | esokaĭńa<sup>1</sup>
|}
</localtag>

<sup>1</sup> These forms are made with the standard suffixes. Therefore, stress always falls on the syllables ''ka'', ''po'' and ''so''.

===Grammatical Number===

Kartara has four classes of grammatical number. Singular refers to one and dual refers to two. Paucal is relative, generally denoting 3-10, while plural denotes a quantity greater than that.

The paucal/plural marking can also be used to denote distinctions between parts of a whole. The plural is used to describe the entirety, while the paucal is used to denote a division of it, even if the division is more than ten or fewer than three. This generally happens when using uncountable nouns (sand, wind, etc) or large groups of people or flocks of animals.

For example, one may spill water (plural), and note that some water (paucal) got on the floor, some (paucal) on the drapes, and some (paucal) remained in the cup. Or, one may refer to the two Senators from Ohio (paucal) as opposed to all Senators in DC (plural).

This latter usage can be seen as more poetic, fanciful, or flamboyant if used for trivial distinctions, if not used to compare and contrast, or when it's just plain overused. Comparison: Sarcasm and irony in the English language.

===Verb Inflection===

Verbs are inflected for person, tense, number, formality and animacy. 1st and 2nd person are assumed to be animate, so only 3rd person has an inanimate inflection. The formal register is only inflected in the 2nd person.

Verbs are grouped into three or four categories based on their final consonant.

* '''Group 1''' consists of verbs with the labial consonants ''p'', ''m'' and ''f''.
* '''Group 2''' consists of the dental and retroflex consonants, but is split into two series.
** '''Series 2a''' contains ''s'', ''t'' and ''n''.
** '''Series 2b''' contains ''ś'', ''t́'' and ''ń''.
* '''Group 3''' consists of the velar consonants ''h'' and ''k''.

Here are the verb inflections for the present tense.

<localtag flexwrap>
{{Verb AK|title=G1
|f1=p
|f1s=m f p
|f1e=eo
|f2=p
|f2s=m f p
|f2e=e&#301;
|f3=p
|f3s=m f p
|f3e=a&#301;
|f4=p
|f4s=m f p
|f4e=e
|f5=p
|f5s=m f p
|f5e=uo
|f6=p
|f6s=m f p
|f6e=ae
|f7=p
|f7s=m f p
|f7e=ou
|f8=p
|f8s=m f p
|f8e=a
|f9=p
|f9s=m f p
|f9e=ara
|f10=p
|f10s=m f p
|f10e=ala
|f11=p
|f11s=m f p
|f11e=a<strong data-swap="m f p" data-swap-nexus="main">p</strong>e
|f12=p
|f12s=m f p
|f12e=are&#301;
|f13=p
|f13s=m f p
|f13e=ale&#301;
|f14=p
|f14s=m f p
|f14e=i
|f15=p
|f15s=m f p
|f15e=iro
|f16=p
|f16s=m f p
|f16e=ilo
|f17=p
|f17s=m f p
|f17e=o<strong data-swap="m f p" data-swap-nexus="main">p</strong>o
|f18=p
|f18s=m f p
|f18e=oro
|f19=p
|f19s=m f p
|f19e=olo
|class=flex|scrollwrap=yes}}
{{Verb AK|title=G2a
|f1=s
|f1s=t n s
|f1e=io
|f2=s
|f2s=t n s
|f2e=u<strong data-swap="t n s" data-swap-nexus="main">s</strong>u
|f3=s
|f3s=t n s
|f3e=o&#301;
|f4=s
|f4s=t n s
|f4e=e
|f5=s
|f5s=t n s
|f5e=u
|f6=s
|f6s=t n s
|f6e=a&#301;
|f7=s
|f7s=t n s
|f7e=ua&#301;
|f8=s
|f8s=t n s
|f8e=i
|f9=s
|f9s=t n s
|f9e=aro
|f10=s
|f10s=t n s
|f10e=alo
|f11=s
|f11s=t n s
|f11e=i<strong data-swap="t n s" data-swap-nexus="main">s</strong>e&#301;
|f12=s
|f12s=t n s
|f12e=are&#301;
|f13=s
|f13s=t n s
|f13e=ale&#301;
|f14=s
|f14s=t n s
|f14e=o
|f15=s
|f15s=t n s
|f15e=ore
|f16=s
|f16s=t n s
|f16e=ole
|f17=s
|f17s=t n s
|f17e=aa
|f18=s
|f18s=t n s
|f18e=ara
|f19=s
|f19s=t n s
|f19e=ala
|class=flex|scrollwrap=yes}}
{{Verb AK|title=G2b
|f1=ś
|f1s=t́ ń ś
|f1e=ua
|f2=ś
|f2s=t́ ń ś
|f2e=a<strong data-swap="t́ ń ś" data-swap-nexus="main">ś</strong>a
|f3=ś
|f3s=t́ ń ś
|f3e=e&#301;
|f4=ś
|f4s=t́ ń ś
|f4e=e
|f5=ś
|f5s=t́ ń ś
|f5e=u
|f6=ś
|f6s=t́ ń ś
|f6e=o&#301;
|f7=ś
|f7s=t́ ń ś
|f7e=uo&#301;
|f8=ś
|f8s=t́ ń ś
|f8e=u
|f9=ś
|f9s=t́ ń ś
|f9e=uro
|f10=ś
|f10s=t́ ń ś
|f10e=uĺo
|f11=ś
|f11s=t́ ń ś
|f11e=u<strong data-swap="t́ ń ś" data-swap-nexus="main">ś</strong>e&#301;
|f12=ś
|f12s=t́ ń ś
|f12e=ure&#301;
|f13=ś
|f13s=t́ ń ś
|f13e=uĺe&#301;
|f14=ś
|f14s=t́ ń ś
|f14e=o
|f15=ś
|f15s=t́ ń ś
|f15e=ore
|f16=ś
|f16s=t́ ń ś
|f16e=oĺe
|f17=ś
|f17s=t́ ń ś
|f17e=aa
|f18=ś
|f18s=t́ ń ś
|f18e=ara
|f19=ś
|f19s=t́ ń ś
|f19e=aĺa
|class=flex|scrollwrap=yes}}
{{Verb AK|title=G3
|f1=h
|f1s=k h
|f1e=ee
|f2=h
|f2s=k h
|f2e=a&#301;
|f3=h
|f3s=k h
|f3e=uu
|f4=h
|f4s=k h
|f4e=e
|f5=h
|f5s=k h
|f5e=eo
|f6=h
|f6s=k h
|f6e=oe
|f7=h
|f7s=k h
|f7e=oe
|f8=h
|f8s=k h
|f8e=a
|f9=h
|f9s=k h
|f9e=ara
|f10=h
|f10s=k h
|f10e=ala
|f11=h
|f11s=k h
|f11e=ate
|f12=h
|f12s=k h
|f12e=are&#301;
|f13=h
|f13s=k h
|f13e=ale&#301;
|f14=h
|f14s=k h
|f14e=a
|f15=h
|f15s=k h
|f15e=aro
|f16=h
|f16s=k h
|f16e=alo
|f17=h
|f17s=k h
|f17e=iki
|f18=h
|f18s=k h
|f18e=iri
|f19=h
|f19s=k h
|f19e=ili
|class=flex|scrollwrap=yes}}
</localtag>
<localtag swapStopper="main!2000" />

Animation is used to cycle through the various final consonants. Note that certain 1st-person and singular forms use the final consonant twice! <localtag noscript>''For those without JavaScript to show the animation:'' Bolded letters indicate the final consonants of the verb. ''P'', ''s'', ''ś'' and ''h'' are used as examples for their respective groups, and the bolded consonant(s) should be replaced with the actual final letter of the verb. For example, the verb ''okanoĭa''  ends in ''n'', which is group 2a. Therefore, the 2nd person singular informal form of ''okanoĭa'' would be ''okanini''.</localtag>

Dual and paucal forms merge in the 2nd and 3rd persons. Formal/informal distinctions merge in the 3rd person; formality can be noted on the noun with the prefix ''es-''.

Groups 2a and 2b merge together in other tenses, and almost completely merge in the 3rd person above.

The participle form is the standard citation form. It is used where English would typically use an infinitive, gerund or participle.

{| class="wikitable tableC flex"
! style="text-align: right;"|G1 and G3
| <strong data-swap-nexus="ptcp" data-swap="m f h k p">p</strong>a&#301;a
|-
! style="text-align: right;"|G2a and G2b
| <strong data-swap-nexus="ptcp" data-swap="ś t t́ n ń s">s</strong>o&#301;a
|}
<localtag swapStopper="ptcp!2000" />

See the [[/Verbs/]] subpage for the past and future tenses.

===Noun Inflection===

Nouns may be inflected with prefixes or suffixes. Prefixes generally denote the uses of nouns, while suffixes generally denote qualities of nouns.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Number
!dual
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -ki
|-
!paucal
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -ru
|-
!plural
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -ńa
|-
!indefinite
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -pu
|}

An uninflected noun is considered singular and definite. Marking the noun for number is obligatory, except for generic nouns (see below).

:'''''Pei kihiso.'''''<br>The dog worries.
:'''''Pei<u>ki</u> kihisore.'''''<br>Both dogs worry.
:'''''Pei<u>ru</u> kihisore.'''''<br>'''''Pei<u>ńa</u> kihisole.'''''<br>The dogs worry.

The indefinite inflection is used to specify a noun that hasn't been previously identified (''a'' thing instead of ''the'' thing) or is otherwise unknown. It can also be used when talking about a generic example of a noun, though it's optional when the genericness is implied by a quantity word. In either case, the noun takes no other number marker (dual, paucal or plural), and the verb is inflected for the plural (or paucal, if quantity is specified).

:'''''Pei kihiso.'''''<br>The dog worries.
:'''''Pei<u>pu</u> kihiso.'''''<br>A dog worries.
:'''''Pei<u>pu</u> kihisole.'''''<br>Dogs worry.
:'''''<u>Uso</u> pei kihisore.'''''<br>Some dogs worry.

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable"
|+ Movement
! Lative
| towards or into
| style="white-space: nowrap" | saĭ-
|-
! Ablative
| away from or out of
| fi-
|-
! Perlative
| through, along or across
| style="white-space: nowrap" | foĭ-
|}</localtag>

Simple movement is indicated by inflecting the noun being used as a reference point. Most of the time, the verb ''pufaĭa'' is used to indicate a change of location. However, it is usually omitted in the present tense. (Note that an initial h is always dropped before applying a prefix.)

:'''''Aulno <u>pufio</u> <u>fi</u>ofpaĭa.'''''<br>The cow came from the island.
:'''''Aulno <u>fi</u>ofpaĭa.'''''<br>The cow comes from the island.
:'''''Iomana <u>pufiu</u> <u>saĭ</u>tatoimo.'''''<br>The husband will go in the box.
:'''''Umu <u>foĭ</u>atofańa.'''''<br>The cat goes along the tree branches.

Typically, 'into', 'out of' and 'along' are the primary meanings. Other verbs, usually ''finoĭa'', are used when context alone doesn't convey the full meaning intended.

:'''''Iomana <u>finepe</u> <u>saĭ</u>tatoimo.'''''<br>The husband will go to [the location of] the box.
:'''''Umu <u>uiso</u> <u>foĭ</u>atofańa.'''''<br>The cat falls through the tree branches.

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable"
|+ Use
! Dative
| recipient of the action
| sol-
|-
! Locative
| in the location of
| oĭl-
|-
! Comitative
| accompanies; along with
| aĭk-
|-
! Instrumental
| using/with/by means of
| style="white-space: nowrap" | um[u]-
|}</localtag>

''sol-'' is used for what in English would normally be called the ''indirect object'' of a sentence. Specifically, it indicates the noun that is the recipient of the action. Typically, it follows the patient (direct object) of the sentence, but it may precede it for emphasis.

:'''''Ketee opusa iruo <u>sol</u>kaĭfohepe.'''''<br>I gave the demon my soul.
:'''''Ketee <u>sol</u>kaĭfohepe opusa iruo.'''''<br>I gave ''the demon'' my soul (not you, Bob!)

''oĭl-'' is used to indicate where or when the action is taking place. ''aĭk-'' marks a noun (almost always animate) that is accompanying the agent in the action. When the noun isn't a participant in the action, use the preposition ''si''.

:'''''Aulno futo <u>oĭl</u>uĭlno <u>si</u> toa.'''''<br>The cow plays in the rain with happiness.
:'''''Aulno <u>aĭk</u>tisite futore.'''''<br>The cow and the pig play.

''umu-'' is used when the noun marked is the instrument by which the action is accomplished. It follows either the patient of the sentence, or the verb if no patient is present. The final u in ''umu-'' is omitted when the noun it attaches to starts with a vowel.

:'''''Torteno tufio <u>umu</u>tiaĭ.'''''<br>The guest stabbed with the knife.
:'''''Aorma tatosoe torteno <u>um</u>auśa!'''''<br>The mother hit the guest with the bed!

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable"
|+ Timeframes
! Locative
| at some point during
| style="white-space: nowrap" | oĭl-
|-
! Lative
| starting at
| style="white-space: nowrap" | saĭ-
|-
! Ablative
| until
| fi-
|-
! Perlative
| for as long as
| style="white-space: nowrap" | foĭ-
|}</localtag>

Prefixes of movement are also used with timeframes. However, the metaphor they utilize is different from the one used by most peoples.

In English, for example, time is thought of as static while you physically move through it. Therefore, the future is "ahead" of you and you leave your past "behind".

In Kartara, time is like a wind blowing from behind you while you stand still. The past is "in front" of you, where you can see and remember it, but the future is "behind" and unknown. This is most clear in the use of the lative and ablative, below.

The locative indicates that the action occurs at some point during or around the timeframe indicated, while the perlative indicates the action happens for the entire duration of the timeframe.

:'''''Fiaĭneke <u>oĭl</u>astoku.'''''<br>I will dance (at some point) tomorrow.
:'''''Aulno futoe aĭktisite <u>oĭl</u>tisia.'''''<br>The cow played with the pig at noon.
:'''''Fiaĭneke <u>foĭ</u>astoku.'''''<br>I will dance (all day) tomorrow.

Depending on the tense of the verb, the lative and ablative indicate the action extends from now until the indicated timeframe, or from that timeframe on.

:'''''Elekoke <u>fi</u>astoku.'''''<br>I will run until tomorrow.
:'''''Kihiseke <u>saĭ</u>astoku.'''''<br>I will worry starting tomorrow.
:'''''Oĭsienee <u>fi</u>tisia.'''''<br>I was digging since noon.
:'''''Iahii <u>fi</u>pei osanae.'''''<br>I laughed until the dog sat down.<br>''(Note how the prefix attaches to the head of the noun phrase.)''

When the time being referenced isn't the boundary of the event, use ''fiti'' (behind) or ''sopio'' (ahead), bearing in mind the wind metaphor and the tense of the action being used.

:'''''Elekoke <u>sopio</u> astoku.'''''<br>I will run (at some point) before tomorrow.<br>'''''Kihiseke <u>fiti</u> astoku.'''''<br>I will worry (at some point) after tomorrow.
:''Tomorrow is behind you, so something after tomorrow is behind it, while something happening before tomorrow would be ahead of it, reaching you first.''
:'''''Fiaĭnee <u>sopio</u> apopo.'''''<br>I cried (at some point) before yesterday.<br>'''''Kulo hafio <u>fiti</u> taĭefee tahi.'''''<br>The boy lied (at some point) after I found him.
:''Yesterday and all past events are ahead of you, so something before that event is even farther ahead, while something since that event is behind that event, still closer to you.''

===Adjective Inflection===

Adjectives and adverbs are interchangeable in Kartaran. They are inflected with suffixes.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Degree
! Diminutive
| to a lesser degree
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -li
|-
! Augmentative
| to a greater degree
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -lo
|}

:'''''Umili pufi tiase<u>li</u>.'''''<br>The kitten is a little sad.
:'''''T́ei pufi iata<u>lo</u>.'''''<br>The mouse is very smart.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparisons
! rowspan="2" | Comparative
| less than
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -moĭli
|-
| more than
| style="white-space: nowrap" | -moĭlo
|-
! Superlative
| to the highest degree
| -maĭ
|}

:'''''Eli ipanoe ufa<u>moĭli</u> upeĭka a santupire?'''''<br>Do you like the prison or the schoolhouse less well?
:'''''Porto<u>maĭ</u> peĭka kepisoe haeĭńa paĭ t́aśeĭ.'''''<br>The most boring prisoner wanted eggs for breakfast.
:'''''Pufe t́aśka<u>moĭlo</u> aheupu si foĭsu kaleĭlo.'''''<br>I'm angrier than a crow with an ugly boyfriend.
:'''''Tafeme huĭu<u>moĭlo</u> eĭa t́aśka.'''''<br>I'm more embarrassed than angry.

===Formal Register===

There are many situations where the formal register is used. Here are a few:

* Many religious services.
**''Certain deities prefer not using the formal register.''
* Addressing the nobility.
* Addressing one's superior, especially in the army and aboard ships.
* For children: addressing one's teacher or parent.
* Referring to older, wiser people.
* Referring to the deceased.
* Between guest and host, merchant and customer, business equals, etc.

Using the formal register denotes that the speaker has respect for the person being referred to. Mostly, it is confined to separate verb conjugations in the second person, but it also includes second and third-person pronouns and a benefactive inflection ''es-''.

:'''''<u>Es</u>pufeke eloĭ fiśi.'''''<br>''For your benefit, I will leave here.''<br>I will be happy to go.
:'''''Seĭońe asauf<u>ofe</u> husaso oesoĭa eloĭ aĭsta.'''''<br>Please (sir) allow me to eat this bread.
:'''''<u>Tasaru</u> pakhaĭtire ańe sia.'''''<br>They commanded many ships.

The benefactive has some use outside the formal register. It can attach to nouns to indicate who the action is for. That noun may either precede the subject or follow the patient.

:'''''<u>Es</u>kusa aki, pameke usolo aĭsta.'''''<br>For the little girl, I will get more bread.
:'''''Panee eĭna tośiśamomo toaĭ <u>es</u>kaleĭsa.'''''<br>I killed that fat tavern keeper for my girlfriend.

=={{Term|Derivational Morphology|s=yes}}==

Unlike inflections, derivations '''do''' change the stress of the word after affixes are applied. For example, inflecting ''eme'' (child) with the dual number (''emeki'') doesn't move the stress from "''em''", but deriving ''emekopa'' (childish) moves the stress to "''ko''".

Also note that, because the stress is changing, ''h''s on a formerly stressed syllable are dropped. For instance, ''kaĭfohepe'' (demon) becomes adjectivized as ''kaĭfoepekoe'' (demonic). Unaccented ''h''s at the beginning of a word are ''not'' dropped if they remain at the beginning of the word (''huĭsenafo'', via ''huĭsenoĭa'').

{{Sidebar
| style=max-width: 15em
| title=Legend
| titlestyle=padding-bottom: .75em
| headingstyle=border: 1px solid #ccc
| contentstyle=padding: .25em 0 .75em 0;
| heading1={''v''}
| heading1style=background-color:#efe
| content1=The final vowel of the root is replaced by the vowel(s) in the braces, unless this would cause a diphthong to be followed by ''i'', in which case the vowel(s) in the braces is/are omitted.
| heading2=[''v/c'']
| heading2style=background-color:#eef
| content2=If the root starts with a vowel/consonant, the vowel/consonant in the bracket is omitted.
| heading3=<nowiki>[aĭ/oĭ]</nowiki>
| heading3style=background-color:#fee
| content3=G1 and G3 verbs use ''aĭ'' while G2 verbs use ''oĭ''.
| heading4={''c''}
| heading4style=background-color:#ffe
| content4=The final consonant in the verb is replaced with the consonant in the braces.
}}

===Verbalizers===

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" | ''Nouns''
| style="text-align: center" | -soĭo
| <nowiki>the characteristic use of [noun]</nowiki> (''whipping'', ''sawing'', ''shopping'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{ia}maĭa
| <nowiki>acting like [noun]</nowiki> (''be friendly'', ''burning'' <nowiki>[via fire])</nowiki>
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -pamaĭa
| <nowiki>to make or get [noun]</nowiki> (''fishing'', ''mining'')
|-
! ''<span class="desktop">Adjectives</span><abbr title="Adjectives" class="mobile">Adjs</abbr>''
| style="text-align: center" | -paĭa
| <nowiki>increase the quality of [adjective]</nowiki> (''strengthen'', ''beautify'')
|-
! rowspan="3" | ''Verbs''
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | <nowiki>fo[a]-</nowiki>
| <nowiki>not doing [verb]</nowiki> (''not speaking'', ''not attacking'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | <nowiki>se[e]-</nowiki>
| <nowiki>doing the opposite of [verb]</nowiki> (''disagree'', ''undo'')
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -esoĭo
| turns an intransitive verb into a transitive verb
|}</localtag>

''-esoĭo'' has few uses, mostly confined to the effects of magic.

:'''''Uĭte tososamomo.'''''<br>The water froze.
:'''''Taamomo tososam<u>es</u>o opusa uĭte!'''''<br>The wizard froze my water!

===Nominalizers===

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" | ''<span class="desktop">Adjectives</span><abbr title="Adjectives" class="mobile">Adjs</abbr>''
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{i}saĭ
| <nowiki>the abstract quality of [adjective]</nowiki> (''redness'', ''strength'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | kum[u]-
| <nowiki>person with strong quality of [adjective]</nowiki> (''genius'' <nowiki>[via smart])</nowiki>
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -śi
| <nowiki>place strongly associated with [adjective]</nowiki> (''unknown location'')
|-
! rowspan="9" | ''Verbs''
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #fee" | <nowiki>-u[aĭ/oĭ]</nowiki>
| <nowiki>one who does [verb] formally or professionally</nowiki> (''instructor'', ''sailor'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #fee" | <nowiki>-[aĭ/oĭ]no</nowiki>
| <nowiki>one who is capable of [verb]</nowiki> (''driver'', ''doer'', ''amateur sailor'')
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -afo
| <nowiki>the abstract concept of [verb]</nowiki> (''carpentry'', ''hunting'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #fee" | <nowiki>-[aĭ/oĭ]mi</nowiki>
| <nowiki>thing that is capable of [verb]</nowiki> (''roller'', ''dryer'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #fee" | <nowiki>-[aĭ/oĭ]si</nowiki>
| <nowiki>thing that can be an object of [verb]</nowiki> (''mount'', ''potable'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #ffe" | -{ś}aĭ
| <nowiki>a completed instance of [verb]</nowiki> (''instruction'', ''drive'', ''visit'', ''motion'')
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -uti
| <nowiki>an incomplete, progressing instance of [verb]</nowiki> (the ''building'' of Ur)
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -iśi
| <nowiki>place where [verb] is done</nowiki> (''school'' <nowiki>[via teach],</nowiki> ''dining room'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #ffe" | -{n}a
| <nowiki>an object heavily involved with [verb]</nowiki> (sail, blade <nowiki>[via cut]</nowiki>)
|-
! rowspan="9" | ''Nouns''
| style="text-align: center" | -śi
| <nowiki>place to keep [noun]</nowiki> (''armory'', ''stable'' <nowiki>[via horse],</nowiki> ''tool shed'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{u}u
| <nowiki>land of [noun]</nowiki> (''pasture'' <nowiki>[via cow],</nowiki> ''farmland'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{i}saĭ
| <nowiki>characteristic product of [noun]</nowiki> (''wool'' <nowiki>[via sheep])</nowiki>
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | tiś[i]-
| <nowiki>one who makes [noun]</nowiki> (''watch maker'', ''craftsman'', ''shipwright'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{a}momo
| <nowiki>one who owns or manages [noun]</nowiki> (''barkeep'', ''shopkeep'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | kum[u]-
| <nowiki>person from [noun]</nowiki> (''Texan'', ''Dallasite'', ''New Zealander'', ''frontiersman'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{e}to
| <nowiki>a large or old version of [noun]</nowiki> (''bonfire'', ''boulder'', ''elder wyrm'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #efe" | -{a}ti
| <nowiki>a small or young version of [noun]</nowiki> (''pebble'', ''puppy'')
|-
| style="text-align: center" | <nowiki>-ao</nowiki>
| <nowiki>group of [noun]</nowiki> (''company'' <nowiki>[via soldier],</nowiki> ''gaggle of geese'')
|}</localtag>

===Adjectivizers===

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="7" | ''Nouns''
| style="text-align: center" | -koe
| <nowiki>like or akin to [noun] in quality</nowiki> (''childlike'' wonder, ''moronic'')
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -kopa
| <nowiki>full of or made of [noun]</nowiki> (''juicy'' lemons, ''brick'' house, ''spring'' days)
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | kam[o]-
| <nowiki>from or characteristic of [noun]</nowiki> (''American'', ''country'' music)
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | <nowiki>kaf[i]-</nowiki>
| <nowiki>from the direction of [noun]</nowiki> (''from the city'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | <nowiki>kas[aĭ]-</nowiki>
| <nowiki>toward the direction of [noun]</nowiki> (''homeward'', ''to the city'')
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | <nowiki>op[o]-</nowiki>
| <nowiki>[noun]'s</nowiki> ({{Term|GEN|genitive|p=g}}; ''the horse's'' mouth)
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | <nowiki>o[p]-</nowiki>
| <nowiki>[pronoun]'s</nowiki> ({{Term|GEN|genitive|p=g}}; ''my'', ''his'', etc.)
|-
! rowspan="4" | ''Verbs''
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #fee" | <nowiki>-[aĭ/oĭ]mi</nowiki>
| <nowiki>able to be an object of [verb]</nowiki> (''breakable'' chair)
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -eso
| <nowiki>is/has been the object of [verb]</nowiki> (''broken'' watch)
|-
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #fee" | <nowiki>-[aĭ/oĭ]a</nowiki>
| <nowiki>able to [verb]</nowiki> (''trawling'' ship, ''fainting'' goat)
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -u
| <nowiki>having an abstract quality of [verb]</nowiki> (''funny'' <nowiki>[via joke],</nowiki> ''talkative'')
|-
! ''<span class="desktop">Adjectives</span><abbr title="Adjectives" class="mobile">Adjs</abbr>''
| style="text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; background-color: #eef" | fo[a]-
| <nowiki>The opposite of [adjective]</nowiki> (''antimatter'', ''unscientific'')
|}</localtag>

''Fo[a]-'' typically only attaches to derived adjectives, but occasionally attaches to emotional states to indicate a lack of that emotion (as ''unhappy'' can be used in English).

=={{Term|Syntax}}==

A beginning...

===Sentence Structure===

Typical word order is Agent-Verb-Patient (transitive) or Subject-Verb (intransitive).

===Noun Phrases===

Typical noun phrase order is Determiner, Quantity, Value/Opinion, Purpose/Qualifier, ''Noun'', Material, Color, Shape, Age, Temperature, Size, Origin. For instance, "my two overrated tiny new sleek red Italian sports cars" could be rendered as "my two overrated sports cars red sleek new tiny Italian".

<localtag scrollwrap>{| class="wikitable tableC"
| Determiner
| Quantity
| Value/Opinion
| Purpose/Qualifier
| rowspan="2" | ''noun''
| Material
| Color
| Shape
| Age
| Temperature
| Size
| Origin
|-
| my<br>this<br>Billy's
| two<br>many<br>no
| expensive<br>normal<br>fertile
| carpenter<br>agricultural<br>protective
| silk<br>iron<br>wooden
| red<br>transparent<br>bright
| round<br>oblong<br>sharp
| old<br>newborn<br>junior
| hot<br>tepid<br>cool
| huge<br>thin<br>wispy
| Egyptian<br>southern<br>island
|}</localtag>

=={{Term|Semantic Fields|s=yes}} and {{Term|Pragmatics}}==

==Writing System==
[[File:Ancient_Kartara_flag_alphabet.png|thumb|alt=caption|A crude representation of the original nautical flags that predated the writing system.]]

==Examples==

=={{Term|Lexicon}}==

[[Category:Dead Languages]]