Ancient Kartara/Examples
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Large-Text Examples
From Canoe Mates in Canada: Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan by St. George Rathborne
Kneeling in a "bullboat," fashioned from the skin of an animal, and wielding a paddle with the dexterity only to be attained after years of practice in canoeing, a sturdily-built and thoroughly bronzed Canadian lad glanced ever and anon back along the course over which he had so recently passed; and then up at the black storm clouds hurrying out of the mysterious North.
[...]
[...]
Pufio
be-3s.AN.PST oakaĭa
kneel-PTCP oĭlsiasikietopu,
LOC-canoe-INDFisomimi
made-3s.INAN.PST opokalapu
GEN-land.animal-INDF sikieto,
hide tue
andpufio
be-3s.AN.PST tasanoĭa
wield-PTCP asiapu
paddle-INDF si
with uĭaĭśaĭ
dexterityiki
that tahipu
3s.AN-INDF sono
only pamio
make-3s.AN.PST pufio
PERF-3s.AN.PSTkafa
3s.INAN fipatuporu
LAT-year-PAU tuesafokopa
practice-ADJZ ati
ofsiatisafo,
canoeing koĭmeĭ
strong tikofeso
builtkulopu
boy-INDF pikakoe
bronze-like kafiCanada
from-Canada tia
oftentuesoe
do.repeatedly-3s.AN.PST teomaĭa
look-PTCP siĺakoe
backward foĭfiniśi
PER-courseiki
that esoe
do-3s.AN.PST iosisoĭa;
pass-PTCP kake
and.then piraĭ
upwards paĭ
atoloańa
cloud-PL tiketo
storm uĭmu
black iki
that selekela
run-3PL.AN.PSTośaĭ
mysterious fiitolo.
ABL-north
be-3s.AN.PST oakaĭa
kneel-PTCP oĭlsiasikietopu,
LOC-canoe-INDFisomimi
made-3s.INAN.PST opokalapu
GEN-land.animal-INDF sikieto,
hide tue
andpufio
be-3s.AN.PST tasanoĭa
wield-PTCP asiapu
paddle-INDF si
with uĭaĭśaĭ
dexterityiki
that tahipu
3s.AN-INDF sono
only pamio
make-3s.AN.PST pufio
PERF-3s.AN.PSTkafa
3s.INAN fipatuporu
LAT-year-PAU tuesafokopa
practice-ADJZ ati
ofsiatisafo,
canoeing koĭmeĭ
strong tikofeso
builtkulopu
boy-INDF pikakoe
bronze-like kafiCanada
from-Canada tia
oftentuesoe
do.repeatedly-3s.AN.PST teomaĭa
look-PTCP siĺakoe
backward foĭfiniśi
PER-courseiki
that esoe
do-3s.AN.PST iosisoĭa;
pass-PTCP kake
and.then piraĭ
upwards paĭ
atoloańa
cloud-PL tiketo
storm uĭmu
black iki
that selekela
run-3PL.AN.PSTośaĭ
mysterious fiitolo.
ABL-north
Considering that he was in so vast a wilderness, this adventurous lad appeared to have scant luggage in his well battered bullboat — indeed, beyond the buckskin jacket, which he had thrown off because of his exertions, there did not seem to be anything at all aboard the craft, not even a gun, by means of which he might provide himself with food while on the journey downstream.
Uĭtaĭsaa
consider-3s.INAN iki
that pufio
be-3s.PST oĭloĭokeĭa
LOC-wilderness takeĭ
excessively aluĭ,
big eloĭ
this etopakoe
adventurous kulo
boy iamio
seem-3s.AN.PST tafemaĭa
have-PTCP takeĭ
excessively ami
few tosiku
luggage otahi
GEN-3s.AN tisosesolo
damaged-AUG oĭlsiasikieto —
LOC-canoe ikilo,
indeed ieĭ
except satokapu
jacket-INDF sikieto
hide pipina,
deer eslaĭ
this esese
do-3s.INAN.PST seet́asafaĭa
undress-PTCP umutahi
INS-3s.AN inau
because otahi
GEN-3s.AN sonimuti,
exertion sefaśu
nothing iamili
seem-3PL.INAN.PST oĭlsiati,
LOC-small.boat ikilo
even see
zero atańokepu,
crossbow-INDF umusefaśu
INS-nothing iki
that iiśae
be.able.to-3s.AN.PST eĭeśoĭa
fish-PTCP o
or ulanoĭa
hunt-PTCP piruĭ
downstream oĭlfiśaĭ.
LOC-journey
consider-3s.INAN iki
that pufio
be-3s.PST oĭloĭokeĭa
LOC-wilderness takeĭ
excessively aluĭ,
big eloĭ
this etopakoe
adventurous kulo
boy iamio
seem-3s.AN.PST tafemaĭa
have-PTCP takeĭ
excessively ami
few tosiku
luggage otahi
GEN-3s.AN tisosesolo
damaged-AUG oĭlsiasikieto —
LOC-canoe ikilo,
indeed ieĭ
except satokapu
jacket-INDF sikieto
hide pipina,
deer eslaĭ
this esese
do-3s.INAN.PST seet́asafaĭa
undress-PTCP umutahi
INS-3s.AN inau
because otahi
GEN-3s.AN sonimuti,
exertion sefaśu
nothing iamili
seem-3PL.INAN.PST oĭlsiati,
LOC-small.boat ikilo
even see
zero atańokepu,
crossbow-INDF umusefaśu
INS-nothing iki
that iiśae
be.able.to-3s.AN.PST eĭeśoĭa
fish-PTCP o
or ulanoĭa
hunt-PTCP piruĭ
downstream oĭlfiśaĭ.
LOC-journey
This singular fact would seem to indicate that he might have had trouble of some sort back yonder.
Eloĭ
this sonolo
only-AUG aĺisaĭ
fact afoĭnaa
would.do-3s.INAN iamaĭa
seem-PTCP teĭkunoĭa
indicate-PTCP iki
that etokio
may-3s.AN.PST pufio
PERF-3s.AN.PST pufio
be-3s.AN.PST oĭltatsa
LOC-trouble ati
of ośaĭ
unknown paĭoĭpu
type-INDF fiti
before emiri.
now
this sonolo
only-AUG aĺisaĭ
fact afoĭnaa
would.do-3s.INAN iamaĭa
seem-PTCP teĭkunoĭa
indicate-PTCP iki
that etokio
may-3s.AN.PST pufio
PERF-3s.AN.PST pufio
be-3s.AN.PST oĭltatsa
LOC-trouble ati
of ośaĭ
unknown paĭoĭpu
type-INDF fiti
before emiri.
now
Indeed, the occasional glances which he cast over his shoulder added strength to this possibility; though the look upon his strong face was more in the line of chagrin and anger than fear.
Kamomo
be-3s.INAN aĺu,
true tiali
sometimes-DIM teośatińa
glance-PL teomio
look-3s.AN.PST fiti
behind pokaĭ
REFL koĭmeĭpopo
strengthen-3s.INAN.PST eloĭ
this etokafo;
possibility uoĭ
though otahi
GEN-3s.AN śari
face iamio
seem-3s.AN.PST tafemaĭa
have-PTCP huĭumoĭlo
embarassing-COMP-AUG aĭ
and t́aśkamoĭlo
angry-COMP-AUG eĭa
than kasukopa.
afraid
be-3s.INAN aĺu,
true tiali
sometimes-DIM teośatińa
glance-PL teomio
look-3s.AN.PST fiti
behind pokaĭ
REFL koĭmeĭpopo
strengthen-3s.INAN.PST eloĭ
this etokafo;
possibility uoĭ
though otahi
GEN-3s.AN śari
face iamio
seem-3s.AN.PST tafemaĭa
have-PTCP huĭumoĭlo
embarassing-COMP-AUG aĭ
and t́aśkamoĭlo
angry-COMP-AUG eĭa
than kasukopa.
afraid
Single-Sentence Examples
The apple is red.
| Hisi | kam-omo | ia. |
| apple | be-3s.INAN | red |
It is John's apple.
| Puf-ofo | op-Iono | hisi. |
| be-3s.INAN | GEN-John | apple |
I give John the apple.
| Ket-e | hisi | sol-Iono. |
| give-1s | apple | DAT-John |
We want to give him the apple.
| Kepis-u | ket-oĭa | hisi | sol-tahi. |
| want-1DU.EX | give-PTCP | apple | DAT-3s.AN |
He gives it to John.
| Ket-o | kafa | sol-Iono. |
| give-3s.AN | 3s.INAN | DAT-John |
She gives it to him.
| Ket-o | kafa | sol-tahi. |
| give-3s.AN | 3s.INAN | DAT-3s.AN |
The sun shines.
| Ulu | pas-o. |
| sun | shine-3s.AN |
The sun is shining.
| Olu | puf-i | pas-oĭa. |
| sun | be-3s.AN | shine-PTCP |
The sun shone.
| Olu | pas-eo. |
| sun | shine-3s.AN.PST |
The sun will shine.
| Olu | pas-epe. |
| sun | shine-3s.AN.FUT |
The sun has been shining.
| Olu | pas-ae | puf-i | es-oĭa. |
| sun | shine-3s.AN.PST | PERF-3s.AN | PROG-PTCP |
| When a past-tense verb is followed by the present-tense puf, it indicates the present perfect. Es in participle form after the verb(s) indicates the action is continuing (progressive). |
The sun is shining again.
| Olu | puf-i | tuka | pas-oĭa. |
| sun | be-3s.AN | again | shine-PTCP |
The sun will shine tomorrow.
| Olu | pas-epe | astoku. |
| sun | shine.3s.AN.FUT | tomorrow |
The sun shines brightly.
| Olu | pas-o | pasetu. |
| sun | shine-3s.AN | bright |
| Most adjectives also function as adverbs. |
The bright sun shines.
| Olu | pasetu | pas-o. |
| sun | bright | shine-3s.AN |
| Ancient Kartara has a tricky adjective system, where most temporary or emotional properties precede the noun (this, 2nd, ugly) while more concrete physical properties follow it (red, old, Reemish). |
The sun is rising now.
| Olu | puf-i | pu | soup-aĭa. |
| sun | be-3s.AN | now | rise-PTCP |
All the people shouted.
| Uko | kart́a | ilon-ile. |
| all | person | shout-3PL.AN.PST |
| kart́ańa (person-PL) can be used, too. |
Some of the people shouted.
| Uso | kart́a | ilon-ire. |
| Some | person | shout-3PAU.AN.PST |
| kart́a-ru (person-PAU) can be used, too. |
Many of the people shouted twice.
| Ańe | kart́a-ru | ilon-ire | ki | teto. |
| many | person-PAU | shout-3PAU.AN.PST | two | instance |
Happy people often shout.
| Toa | kart́a-ńa-pu | tia | tues-ole. | ilon-oĭa |
| Happy | person-PL-INDF | sometimes | do.habitually-3PL.AN | shout-PTCP |
| Tia tues- (lit. "always do something, sometimes") translates to "often does" and is followed by the participle form of another verb. |
The kitten jumped up.
| Umati | seles-ae | piraĭ. |
| kitten | jump-3s.AN.PST | upwards |
The kitten jumped onto the table.
| Umati | seles-ae | aĺpa | saĭ-ikireta. |
| kitten | jump-3s.AN.PST | onto | LAT-table |
My little kitten walked away.
| Op-usa | umati | aki | ses-ae | fi-emiri. |
| GEN-1s | kitten | little | walk-3s.AN.PST | ABL-here |
It's raining.
| Uĭlo | toon-ole. |
| rain | come-3PL.AN |
The rain came down.
| Uĭlo | toon-ile | piruĭ. |
| rain | come-3PL.AN.PST | down |
The kitten is playing in the rain.
| umati | puf-i | fut-oĭa | oĭl-uĭlo. |
| kitten | be-3s.AN | play-PTCP | LOC-rain |
The rain has stopped.
| Uĭlo | asam-io | puf-i. |
| rain | stop-3s.AN.PST | be-3s.AN |
Soon the rain will stop.
| Uĭlo | asam-iu | oĺa. |
| rain | stop-3s.AN.FUT | soon |
| Oĺa | iki | uĭlo | asam-iu. |
| soon | CONJ.ADV | rain | stop-3s.AN.FUT |
| Iki can be used to front an adverbial clause, as in the second example. |
I hope the rain stops soon.
| Husa | siuf-e | iki | uĭlo | asam-iu | oĺa. |
| 1s | hope-1s | that | rain | stop.3s.AN.FUT | soon |
| Husa is optional. |
| Iki introduces a subordinate clause. |
Once wild animals lived here.
| Kala-ńa-pu | oĭoki | puf-ila | oĭl-emiri. |
| animal-PL-INDF | wild | be-3PL.AN.PST | LOC-here |
| The indefinite suffix is mandatory when no amount is indicated. |
Slowly she looked around.
| Uĺkopa | teom-io | peĭaĺśe | oĭl-empi. |
| completely | look.3s.PST | slow | LOC-3s.AN |
| Teom is a transitive verb, requiring a second argument. |
Go away!
| Pu | puf-a | fi-emiri. |
| now.IMP | be-2s | ABL-here |
| If pu precedes a bare verb, it denotes the imperative (command) mood. |
| Eloĭ may be omitted if the place in question is obvious to the listener. |
Let's go!
| Pu | aĭkuańa | fi-emiri. |
| now.IMP | 1PL.IN | ABL-here |
| Puf is optional when an affix encodes movement. |
You should go.
| Oap-a | fi-emiri. |
| should.do-2s | ABL-here |
| Demonstrating how eloĭ is optional. |
I will be happy to go.
| Es-puf-eke | fi-emiri. |
| BEN.FORM-be-1s.FUT | ABL-here |
He will arrive soon.
| Puf-iu | saĭ-emiri | oĺa. |
| be-3s.FUT | LAT-here | soon |
The baby's ball has rolled away.
| Opo-seaĭ | sou | somus-ese | fi-emiri. |
| GEN-baby | ball | roll-3s.INAN.PST | ABL-here |
The two boys are working together.
| Aĭk-ulo-ki | puf-iro | sonim-aĭa. |
| COM-boy-DU | be.3DU.AN | work-PTCP |
This mist will probably clear away.
| Eloĭ | kusuo | asam-iu | pokiko. |
| DET.this | mist | end-3s.AN.FUT | probable |
Lovely flowers are growing everywhere.
| Uko | oĭl-śi | iki | suĭtu-ńa-pu | antali-lo | oas-ala. |
| All | LOC-place | CONJ.ADV | flower-PL-INDF | beautiful-AUG | grow-3PL.INAN |
We should eat more slowly.
| Oap-eĭ | oes-oĭa | peĭaĺśe-moĭ-o. |
| should-1PAU.IN | eat-PTCP | slow-COMP-AUG |
You have come too soon.
| Toon-oe | puf-a | takeĭ | oĺa. |
| come-2s.PST | PERF.2s | too | soon |
You must write more neatly.
| Saśim-a | tuksun-oĭa | tatu-moĭ-lo. |
| must.do-2s | write.PTCP | careful-COMP-AUG |
Directly opposite stands a wonderful palace.
| Iam-omo | siĺao | fi-enopo | iki | tamese | śit́ami-pu | ium-omo. |
| seem-3s.INAN | stern | ABL-bow | CONJ.ADV | wonderful | palace-INDF | stand.3s.INAN |
| Iamomo siĺao fienopo is a metaphor roughly meaning "as the stern is from the bow". |
Henry's dog is lost.
| Opo-Henri | pei | puf-i | topou. |
| GEN-Henry | dog | be-3s.AN | lost |
| Opo-Henri | pei | oĭl-topouśi. |
| GEN-Henry | dog | LOC-unknown.location.on.land |
| Puf is optional when an affix encodes location. |
My cat is black.
| Op-usa | umu | puf-i | uĭmu. |
| GEN-1s | cat | be-3s.AN | black |
The little girl's doll is broken.
| Opo-kusa | aki | karaki | puf-ofo | ekafeso. |
| GEN-girl | little | doll | be-3s.INAN | broken |
I usually sleep soundly.
| Husa | tia-lo | tues-e | ufa | saas-oĭa. |
| 1s | sometimes-AUG | do.habitually-1s | well | sleep-PTCP |
| Husa is optional, but would most likely be said here for clarity. Augmenting tia turns tia tues- from "often" to "usually". |
The children ran after Jack.
| Eme-ru | iuśu | selek-era | saĭ-Iaka. |
| child-PAU | followingly | run-3PAU.AN.PST | LAT-Jack |
I can play after school.
| Pen-eke | fut-oĭa | saĭ-santus-oĭa. |
| can-1s.FUT | play.PTCP | LAT-teach-PTCP |
We went to the village for a visit.
| Puf-ue | saĭ-toĭka | paĭ | taĭkeśaĭ-pu. |
| be-1DU.EX.PST | LAT-village | for | visit-INDF |
We arrived at the river.
| Toon-ue | oĭl-ose. |
| arrive-1DU.EX.PST | LOC-river |
| Using puf would translate as "we went to the river" and require the lative case. |
I have been waiting for you.
| Puf-ee | puf-e | akiś-oĭa | paĭ | pepa. |
| be-1s.PST | PERF.1s | wait-PTCP | for | 2s |
| Es-puf-ee | puf-e | akiś-oĭa. |
| BEN.FORM-be-1s.PST | PERF-1s | wait-PTCP |
| The first form would be used by a superior to an underling. The latter from an underling to a superior. In other cases, either could be used. |
The campers sat around the fire.
| Fin-oĭno-ru | osan-ire | kat́oĭa | halo. |
| travel-NMLZ-PAU | sit-2PAU.AN.PST | around | fire |
A little girl with a kitten sat near me.
| Kusa-pu | aki | aĭk-umati-pu | osan-ae | tasa | husa. |
| girl-INDF | little | COM-kitten-INDF | sit-3s.AN.PST | near | 1s |
The child waited at the door for her father.
| Eme | akiś-ae | oĭl-t́otoĭ | paĭ | o-tahi | ańa. |
| child | wait.3s.AN.PST | LOC-door | for | GEN-3s | father |
Yesterday the oldest girl in the village lost her kitten.
| Apopo | iki | oĭl-toĭka | kusa | tio-maĭ | aĭoĭn-ae | o-tahi | umati. |
| Yesterday | CONJ.ADV | LOC-village | girl | old-SUPL | lose-3s.AN.PST | GEN-3s | kitten |
Were you born in this village?
| Taa | topatos-oe | seat-eso | eloĭ | oĭl-toĭka? |
| yes/no | become-3s.PST | birth-ADJZ | DET.this | LOC-village |
| The interrogative pronoun can be omitted, with intonation alone indicating that it's a question. The pronoun always matches the information being requested. |
Can your brother dance well?
| Pali | o-pepa | akasa | haĭf-i | ufa? |
| how | GEN-2s | brother | dance-3s | well |
Did the man leave?
| Tali | aluko | fi-emiri? |
| where | man | ABL-here |
Is your sister coming for you?
| Pali | o-pepa | akasa | saĭ-emiri | paĭ | pepa? |
| how | GEN-2s | sister | LAT-here | for | you |
| The pronoun used can reveal why the question is being asked. Here, they are asking how you are leaving, as opposed to who you are leaving with (why not me?), when you are leaving (is it going to be a while?) or even why it's happening (is your sister making you leave?) The most polite pronoun is taa, asking for a simple yes/no answer. |
Can you come tomorrow?
| Pepa | taa | saĭ-emori | astoku? |
| 2s | yes/no | LAT-there | tomorrow |
| The interrogative pronoun precedes a regular noun, but follows a personal pronoun. |
Have the neighbors gone away for the winter?
| Taa | foatia-ki | fi-emiri | paĭ | tarhuĭa? |
| yes/no | neighbor-DU | ABL-here | for | winter |
Does the robin sing in the rain?
| Taa | posko-pu | si | palaku | ia | totof-ilo | oĭl-uĭlo? |
| yes/no | bird-INDF | with | chest | red | sing-3PL.AN | LOC-rain |
| When talking about a generic noun, the noun receives -pu without any number marker, but the verb takes the 3rd person plural with the proper animacy. (The language lacks a word for 'robin', hence 'bird with red chest'.) This becomes optional when the genericness is implied via quantity adjectives like 'all' or 'many'. |
Are you going with us to the concert?
| Pepa | taa | saĭ-teto | sora | si | huru? |
| 2s | yes/no | ABL-event | music | with | 1PAU.EX |
Have you ever travelled in the jungle?
| Taa | fin-oe | oĭl-t́au | tinta? |
| yes/no | travel-2s.PST | LOC-forest | hot |
| As usual, the personal pronoun is optional. |
We sailed down the river for several miles.
| Suik-utoĭ | piruĭ | ose | paĭ | foĭ-too-ru. |
| sail-1PL.EX.PST | downstream | river | for | PER-mile-PAU |
| Paĭ, when paired with the perlative case, indicates a range of time or distance. |
Everybody knows about hunting.
| Uko | kart́a | aof-ilo | paĭ | ulanafo. |
| All | person | know-3PL.AN | about | hunting |
On a sunny morning after the solstice we started for the mountains.
| Oĭl-toso-pu | olukopa | saĭ-aakulo | iki | utis-ati | fin-oĭa | saĭ-ome-ńa. |
| LOC-morning-INDF | sunny | LAT-summer.solstice | CONJ.ADV | start-1PAU.EX.PST | move-PTCP | LAT-mountain-PL |
Tom laughed at the monkey's tricks.
| Tom | iah-io | paĭ | opo-kala | satuĭke-ru. |
| Tom | laugh-3s.AN.PST | at | GEN-land.animal | game-PAU |
An old man with a walking stick stood beside the fence.
| Aluko-pu | tio | aĭk-sestaka-pu | ium-io | oplo | t́at́io |
| man-INDF | old | COM-walking.stick-INDF | stand-3s.AN.PST | beside | fence |
| Si sestaka is also acceptable, as "man" and "walking stick" don't share the same animacy. However, the comitative prefix is used due to the man being inseparable from the walking stick. |
The squirrel's nest was hidden by drooping boughs.
| Op-iuĭt́io | pikaĭla | es-ese | aĺas-oĭa | um-atofa | śuimu. |
| GEN-squirrel | nest | do-3s.INAN.PST | hide-PTCP | INS-branch | drooping |
| Es is used for passive-voice constructions such as the above, similar to how English uses "to be". Es takes the active conjugation while the passive verb takes the participle form. |
The little seeds waited patiently under the snow for the warm spring sun.
| Sea-ńa | aki | akiś-ili | toĺo | keĭa | pakasa | paĭ | ulu | enatoĭ-kopa | taoto. |
| seed-PL | little | wait-3PL.INAN.PST | patiently | under | snow | for | sun | spring-ADJZ | warm |
Many little girls with wreaths of flowers on their heads danced around the bonfire.
| Ańe | kusa-ńa | aki | si | kat́usuĭtu | oĭl-śaa | haĭf-ila | kat́oĭa | foĭ-haleto. |
| many | girl-PL | little | with | wreath.of.flowers | LOC-head | dance-3PL.AN | around | PER-bonfire |
The cover of the basket fell to the floor.
| Op-atkao | onipsa | uis-ese | saĭ-tekeĭa. |
| GEN-basket | cover | fall.3s.IN.PST | LAT-floor |
The first boy in the line stopped at the entrance.
| Huka | kulo | oĭl-tupaĭa | akiś-ae | oĭl-kukusiśi. |
| first | boy | LOC-line | stop-3s.AN.PST | LOC-entrance |
On the top of the hill in a little hut lived a wise old woman.
| Oĭl-upire-pu | aki | aĺpa | t́o | iki | atipa | asuka-pu | tio. | es-ae | puf-aĭa |
| LOC-house-INDF | little | on.top.of | hill | CONJ.ADV | wise | woman-INDF | old | do-3s.AN.PST | be-PTCP |
| The use of iki here indicates that the preceding phrase is the object of the following transitive verb. |
During our residence in the country we often walked in the pastures.
| Oĭl-puf-ue | oĭl-tusuo-ńa | iki | tia | tues-ue | ses-oĭa | oĭl-aulnuu-ńa. |
| LOC-be.1DU.EX.PST | LOC-farm-PL | CONJ.ADV | sometimes | do.habitually-1DU.EX.PST | walk-PTCP | LOC-pasture-PL |
When will your guests from the city arrive?
| Uli | op-esa | torteno-ru | kafi-toĭketo | saĭ-emiri? |
| when | GEN-2s.FORM | guest-PAU | ADJZ.coming.from-city | LAT-here |
Near the mouth of the river, its course turns sharply towards the East.
| Op-ose | oĭl-pai | tasa | iki | o-tahi | finiśi | atań-o | poto | saĭ-kuĭu. |
| GEN-river | LOC-mouth | near | CONJ.ADV | GEN-3s.AN | course | turn-3s.AN | sharp | LAT-east |
Between the two lofty mountains lay a fertile valley.
| T́afoa | ome-ki | isea | iki | hapitutaĭ | kirampati-pu | kam-imi. |
| between | mountain-DU | lofty | CONJ.ADV | fertile | valley-INDF | be.3s.INAN.PST |
Among the wheat grew tall red poppies.
| Oĭl-puĭtia | iki | seĭo-ńa-pu | ia | isea | oas-ili. |
| LOC-wheat | CONJ.ADV | poppy-PL-INDF | red | tall | grow-3PL.INAN.PST |
The strong roots of the oak trees were torn from the ground.
| Opo-t́ukea-ńa | koĭmeĭ | taĭuse-ńa | es-ili | sukeĭn -oĭa | fi-t́ala. |
| GEN-oak.tree-PL | strong | root-PL | do-3PL.INAN.PST | tear-PTCP | ABL-ground |
The sun looked down through the branches upon the children at play.
| Ulu | teom-io | piruĭ | foĭ-atofa-ru | fut-oĭa | eme-ru. |
| Sun | look-3s.AN.PST | down | PER-branch-PAU | play-ADJZ | child-PAU |
The west wind blew across my face like a friendly caress.
| Kafi-koa | okuĭ | ataf-io | op-usa | foĭ-śari | oke | aleĭsokoe | teĭośaĭ-pu. |
| ADJZ.from-west | wind | blow-3s.AN.PST | GEN-1s | PER-face | like | friendly | caress-INDF |
The spool of thread rolled across the floor.
| Opuo | ati | suo | somus-ese | foĭ-tekeĭa. |
| spool | of | thread | roll-3s.INAN.PST | PER-floor |
A box of growing plants stood in the window.
| Tatoimo-pu | ati | oas-oĭa | oĭomo-ru | osan-ae | oĭl-ako. |
| box-INDF | of | grow-ADJZ | plant-PAU | sit-3s.INAN.PST | LOC-window |
| Large objects like houses stand. Smaller objects only sit. |
I am very happy.
| Puf-e | toa-lo. |
| be-1s | happy-AUG |
These oranges are juicy.
| Eloĭ-ru | tao-ru | śaĭsu | kam-oro | uĭtamukopa. |
| DET.this-PAU | fruit-PAU | brown/orange | be-3PAU.INAN | juicy |
Sea water is salty.
| Uĭtese-pu | tafem-omo | se. |
| saltwater-INDF | have-3PAU.INAN | salt |
| The word for saltwater is also used for the ocean. The difference is that the ocean takes the animate gender! |
The streets are full of people.
| Oset́ala-ńa | puf-ilo | kart́a-kopa. |
| street-PL | be.3PL.AN | person-ADJZ |
| The word for street is based on the word for river, and therefore takes its animate gender. The suffix -kopa most closely resembles the English suffix -ful. |
Sugar tastes sweet.
| Tipaĭ | soĭs-o | pupaĭ. |
| sugar | taste-3s.INAN | sweet |
The fire feels hot.
| Halo | tafem-i | tinta. |
| fire | has-3s.AN | hot |
| "Feel" in this context usually translates as "have". |
The little girl seemed lonely.
| Kusa | aki | iam-io | hulo. |
| girl | little | seem-3s.AN.PST | lonely |
The little boy's father had once been a sailor.
| Opo-kulo | aki | ańa | kam-io | puf-io | suikuaĭ-pu. |
| GEN-boy | little | father | be-3s.AN.PST | PERF-3s.AN.PST | sailor-INDF |
| When a past-tense verb is followed by the past-tense puf, it indicates the past perfect. |
I have lost my blanket.
| Aĭoĭn-ee | puf-e | op-usa | aĭot́a. |
| lose-1s.PST | PERF-1s | GEN-1s | blanket |
A robin has built his nest in the apple tree.
| Posko-pu | si | palaku | ia | tiś-ae | puf-i | o-tahi | piaĭsko | oĭl-t́itao | hisi-kopa. |
| bird-INDF | with | chest | red | make-3s.AN.PST | PERF-3s.AN | GEN-3s.AN | nest | LOC-fruit.tree | appple-ADJZ |
At noon we ate our lunch by the roadside.
| Oĭl-tisia | iki | oes-ue | op-uki | tielasa | oplo | hiat́ala. |
| LOC-noon | CONJ.ADV | eat-1DU.EX.PST | GEN-1DU.EX | lunch | by | roadside |
Mr. Jones made a knife for his little boy.
| Emokefe | Ionse | tiś-ae | op-empi | es-kulo | aki | tiaĭ-pu. |
| Mr | Jones | make-3s.AN.PST | GEN-3s.AN.FORM | BEN-boy | little | knife-INDF |
Their voices sound very happy.
| O-tasaru | inaĭo-ru | ion-ire | toa-lo. |
| GEN-3PAU.AN | voice-PAU | seem-3PAU.AN.PST | happy-AUG |
Is today Monday?
| Taa | apape | kam-i | Kat́apaso? |
| yes/no | today | be-3s.AN | Monday? |
Have all the leaves fallen from the tree?
| Uko | tano | uis-ala | puf-olo | fi-t́io? |
| All | leaf | fall-3PL.INAN.PST | PERF-3PL.INAN | ABL-tree |
Will you be ready on time?
| Taa | puf-u | puf-o | taśo | t́aĭ | emori? |
| yes/no | be-2s.PST | PERF-2s.FUT | ready | correct | then |
| When a past-tense verb is followed by the future-tense puf, it indicates the future perfect. T́aĭ emori, literally "the correct then", translates to "on time". Ensua can be used in place of emori if needed. |
Will you send this message for me?
| Seĭoń-e | ikeuk-uku | eloĭ | karau? |
| request-1s | send-2s.FUT | DET.this | message |
| Seĭoń indicates the action requested is from the speaker and to the listener, unless specified otherwise (such as, "Bob seĭońo umuTom ikeukuku eloĭ karau?", which would indicate the request is from Bob and directed at Tom [instrumental case]). The following verb is almost always in future-tense, though it might be in present-tense if the request is an immediate command. |
Are you waiting for me?
| Puf-afe | akiś-oĭa | paĭ | husa? |
| be-2s.FORM | wait-PTCP | for | 1s |
Is this the first kitten of the litter?
| Kam-i | op-asasa | huka | umati? |
| be-3s.INAN | GEN-litter | first | kitten |
| Genitive precedes other demonstratives. |
Are these shoes too big for you?
| Eloĭ-ki | sauĭ-ki | kam-a | takeĭ | aluĭ | fao | pepa? |
| DET.this-DU | shoe-DU | be-2s | too.much | big | for | 2s |
| As an opinion, takeĭ always precedes the word it modifies, even when it's an adjective. |
How wide is the River?
| Salo | toaĭ | ose | kam-i? |
| what | width | river | be-3s.AN |
Listen.
| Pu | ioĭs-i. |
| now.IMP | listen-2s |
Sit here by me.
| Pu | osan-i | śi | oplo | husa. |
| now.IMP | sit-2s | place | by | me |
Keep this secret until tomorrow.
| Kaman-i | esloĭ | si | impolisaĭ | fi-astoku. |
| keep-2s | DEM.this | with | secrecy | ABL-tomorrow |
| Pu can be omitted for polite requests and when the context makes the imperative mood obvious. |
Come with us.
| Pu | fin-i | si | huru. |
| now.IMP | go-2s | with | 1PAU.EX |
Bring your friends with you.
| Pepa | aĭk-aleĭso-ru | saĭ-emiri. |
| 2s | COM-friend-PAU | LAT-here |
Be careful.
| Pu | aeń-u | tatu. |
| now.IMP | care-2s | carefully |
Have some tea.
| Aiś-e | pefaĭ-ru-pu. |
| offer-1s | tea-PAU-INDF |
| The plural is often used as a shorthand for the entirety of something, with the paucal denoting a portion of that. Uso pefaĭ is also acceptable. If the subject of the offer isn't clear from the context, the correct pronoun (or name) can be used before the verb. |
Pip and his dog were great friends.
| Pipo | aĭ | o-tahi | pei | kam-uru | ufa-lo | aleĭso-ki. |
| Pip | and | GEN-3s | dog | be-3DU.PST | good-AUG | friend-DU |
| It is common to use kam instead of puf to denote the permanence of the friendship. |
John and Elizabeth are brother and sister.
| Iono | aĭ | Elisape | kam-ara | akasa-ki. |
| John | and | Elizabeth | be-3DU | sibling-DU |
You and I will go together.
| Aĭkuki | fin-ekuĭ. |
| 1DU.IN | go-1DU.IN.FUT |
| Pepa aĭkusa finekuĭ is also acceptable, denoting separateness before joining together. |
They opened all the doors and windows.
| Kukof-ira | uko | t́otoĭ-ńa | aĭ | ako-ńa. |
| open-3PAU.PST | all | door-PL | and | window-PL |
| The plural markers are optional (or might be traded for paucal or dual suffixes). |
He is small, but strong.
| Kam-a | aki, | ieĭ | koĭmeĭ. |
| be-3s | small | but | strong |
Is this tree an oak or a maple?
| Salo | eloĭ | t́io | kam-omo | t́ukea-pu | a | t́uśaĭ-pu? |
| what | this | tree | be-3s.INAN | oak-INDF | or | maple-INDF |
Does the sky look blue or gray?
| Kompu | iam-i | tioto | a | oksomse? |
| sky | seem-3s.AN | cyan.blue | or | gray |
| Takuni is a dark shade of blue, like navy or cobalt. Tioto is lighter, like cyan or sky blue. Note that the sky is considered animate. |
Come with your father or mother.
| Pu | toon-ii | o-pepa | aĭk-ańa | o | aĭk-aorma. |
| IMP | come-2s.FUT | GEN-2s | COM-father | or | COM-mother |
| The possessive pronoun can be distributed across and/or clauses, or you can apply it to both nouns separately: opepa aĭkańa o opepa aĭkaorma. |
I am tired, but very happy.
| Puf-e | saasu, | ieĭ | toa-lo. |
| be-1s | tired | but | happy-AUG. |
He played a tune on his wonderful flute.
| Touĭn-ae | sorio-pu | op-empi | tamese | umu-tiatei. |
| play-3s.AN.PST | tune-INDF | GEN-3s.AN.FORM | wonderful | INS-flute |
Toward the end of August the days grow much shorter.
| Teĭkuneso | asaśaĭ | paĭ | hat́upu | iki | paso-ńa | akip-ilo | takeĭ. |
| towards | ending | for | summer | CONJ.ADV | day-PL | shrink-3PL.INAN | much |
| Teĭkuneso points at a specific (though possibly unknown) portion of the noun it modifies. (Paĭ asaśaĭ would point to the exact end.) |
A company of soldiers marched over the hill and across the meadow.
| Haokariso-pu | aĭkses-ae | piraĭ | foĭ-t́o | aĭ | foĭ-tite. |
| company.of.soldiers-INDF | march-3s.AN.PST | over | PER-hill | and | PER-meadow |
| Piraĭ is used before foĭt́o to disabiguate that they are going over the hill, not along its edge. |
The first part of the story is very interesting.
| Huka | pukunuoĭ | ta | koĭasu | kam-omo | uĭlsi-lo. |
| first | portion | in | story | be-3s.INAN | interesting-AUG |
The crow dropped some pebbles into the pitcher and raised the water to the brim.
| Aheu | śuĭrim-io | t́akoati-ru-pu | saĭ-tatio | tue | śaĭrim-io | uĭte | saĭ-kata | piraĭ. |
| crow | drop-3s.PST | pebble-PAU-INDF | LAT-pitcher | & | raise-3s.PST | water | LAT-edge | upper |
| Tue links verb phrases. Aĭ links noun phrases and adjectives. |
The baby clapped her hands and laughed in glee.
| Seaĭ | talus-ae | tue | iah-io | si | toa-lo. |
| baby | clap-3s.AN.PST | and | laugh-3s.AN.PST | with | happy-AUG |
Stop your game and be quiet.
| Pu | akiś-u | o-pepa | satuĭke | tue | tofoas-i. |
| IMP | stop-2s | GEN-2s | game | and | be.quiet-2s |
The sound of the drums grew louder and louder.
| Opo-foru-ru | suafao | puf-iri | opoĭo-moĭ-lo | aĭ | opoĭo-moĭ-lo. |
| GEN-drum-PAU | sound | be-3PAU.INAN.PST | loud-COMP-AUG | and | loud-COMP-AUG |
Do you like summer or winter better?
| Eli | ipan-oe | ufa-moĭ-lo | soĭ | tarhuĭa | a | hat́upu? |
| which | like-2s | good-COMP-AUG | of.the.following | winter | or | summer |
That boy will have a wonderful trip.
| Eĭna | kulo | pam-iu | tamese | fiśaĭ-pu. |
| DET.that | boy | obtain-3s.AN.FUT | wonderful | trip-INDF |
They won the first two games, but lost the last one.
| Utip-ila | huka | satuĭke-ki, | uoĭ | teĺoś-ile | oĺai | eĭloĭ |
| won-3PL.ANIM.PST | first | game-DU | but | lose-3PL.ANIM.PST | last | DEM.that.one |
Take this note, carry it to your mother; and wait for an answer.
| Pu | oĭpup-a | eloĭ | karaati, | ikeuk-a | o-pepa | sai-aorma; | tue | akiś-u | paĭ | puĭsaśaĭ-pu. |
| IMP | receive-2s | DET.this | note | deliver-2s | GEN-2s | LAT-mother | and | wait-2s | for | answer-INDF |
I awoke early, dressed hastily, and went down to breakfast.
| Soko | feuń-e | pokaĭ, | foatatu | t́asaf-ee, | tue | śuim-ee | paĭ | t́aśeĭ. |
| early | wake-1s.PST | REFL | hasty | dress-1s.PST | and | go.down-1s.PST | for | breakfast |
| The reflexive pronoun pokaĭ stands in for any noun, typically the last reference. Both feuń and t́asaf are transitive and require an object, but since the reflexive was used for the first verb in the sentence, the second can be omitted and will be understood to have a reflexive object as well. |
Aha! I have caught you!
| Etaĭ! | kikaf-ee | puf-e | pepa! |
| Aha! | catch-1s.PST | PERF-1s | 2s |
This string is too short!
| Eloĭ | suo | puf-ofo | takeĭ | aĭlo! |
| DET.this | string | be-3s.INAN | too | short |
Oh, dear! the wind has blown my hat away!
| Tosinu oso! | okuĭ | ataf-es-ae | puf-i | op-usa | t́ańaśa | fi-husa! |
| Oh dear! | wind | blow-TR-PST.3s.AN | PERF-3s.AN | GEN-1s | hat | ABL-1s |
| Tosinu oso literally means "smelly fish". It's considered a very mild expletive. |
Alas! that news is sad indeed!
| Etue! | eloĭ | karaisaĭ | kam-omo | tiase | oplo | aĺisaĭ-pu. |
| Alas! | DET.this | news | be-3s.INAN | sad | beside/next.to | truth-INDF |
Whew! that cold wind freezes my nose!
| Arua! | Eĭna | okuĭ | kimi | tososam-es-o | op-usa | kani! |
| Whew! | DET.that | wind | cold | freeze-TR-3s.AN | GEN-1s | nose |
| Arua is literally a noise a dog makes. |
Are you warm enough now?
| Taa | puf-afe | foasośo | taoto | oĭl-emiri? |
| yes/no | be-2s.FORM | enough | warm | LOC-now |
They heard the warning too late.
| Suaf-io | puf-io | fitisaĭśaĭ | takeĭ | sau. |
| hear-3PL.PST | PERF-3PL.PST | warning | too | late |
We are a brave people, and love our country.
| Kam-ou | koĭ | kart́aao | tue | takaeń-uoĭ | op-una | uĭtuka. |
| be-1PL.EX | brave | people | and | love-1PL.EX | GEN-1PL.EX | country |
All the children came except Mary.
| Uko | eme-ńa | toon-ile | ieĭ | fo-es-ae | Omari |
| all | child-PL | come-3PL.AN.PST | except | not-do-3s.AN.PST | Mary |
| Eme-ńa | paoń-ae | Omari | toon-ile. |
| child-PL | remove-3s.PST | Mary | come-3PL.AN.PST |
| [X] removing [Y] is a common way to indicate [X] except for [Y], and is understood as a noun phrase requiring a verb. |
Jack seized a handful of pebbles and threw them into the lake.
| Iaka | takuaś-oe | t́akoati-ru-pu | tue | otap-io | sol-emoru | saĭ-oa. |
| Jack | sieze-3s.AN.PST | pebble-PAU-INDF | and | throw-3s.AN.PST | DAT-those.PAU | LAT-lake |
This cottage stood on a low hill, at some distance from the village.
| Eloĭ | upire | ium-imi | oĭl-t́o | piruĭ, | kam-imi | fi-toĭka | teta. |
| this | cottage | stand-3s.INAN.PST | LOC-hill | low | be-3s.INAN.PST | ABL-village | far |
On a fine summer evening, the two old people were sitting outside the door of their cottage.
| Ufa | hat́upu | oĭl-tinse-pu, | kart́a-ki | tio | osan-ire | es-oĭa | o-taski | op-upire | oĭl-t́otoĭ | foaakoe. |
| fine | summer | LOC-evening-INDF | person-DU | old | sit-3DU.PST | do-PROG | GEN-3DU | GEN-cottage | LOC-door | outside.of |
Our bird's name is Jacko.
| Op-uki | opo-posko | asuoĭ | kam-omo | Iaka. |
| GEN-1DU.EX | GEN-bird | name | be-3s.INAN | Jack |
The river knows the way to the sea.
| Ose | aof-i | finiśi | paĭ | saĭ-uĭtese. |
| river | know-3s.INAN | way | for | LAT-sea |
The boat sails away, like a bird on the wing.
| Sia | es-a | suik-aĭa | fi-emiri, | iam-i | pokso-pu | t́ami | feuś-oĭa. |
| boat | do-3s.INAN | sail-PTCP | ABL-here | seem-3s.AN | bird-INDF | while | fly-3s.PTCP |
They looked cautiously about, but saw nothing.
| Teom-ira | tatu | oĭl-emori, | uoĭ | his-ire | sefaśu. |
| look-3PAU.AN.PST | cautious | LOC-there | but | see-3PAU.AN.PST | nothing |
The little house had three rooms, a sitting room, a bedroom, and a tiny kitchen.
| Upire | aki | tafem-imi | pa | tekoĭ-ru, | alumani | tekoĭ-pu, | saasu | tekoĭ-pu, | aĭ | pies-u | tekoĭ-pu | ati-li. |
| house | little | have-3s.INAN.PST | 3 | room-PAU | welcoming | room-INDF | sleepy | room-INDF | and | cook-ADJZ | room-INDF | small-DIM |
We visited my uncle's village, the largest village in the world.
| Taĭken-ue | toĭka | ati | op-usa | ańkasa, | toĭka | aluĭ-maĭ | aĺpa | toĭnaĭ. |
| visit-1DU.EX.PST | village | of | GEN-1s | uncle | village | large-SUPL | on.top.of | world |
We learn something new each day.
| santusoĭmip-eo | unia | faśu-pu | iaĭ | paso-ńa. |
| learn-1s.INCL | new | something-INDF | continuous | day-PL |
The market begins five minutes earlier this week.
| Tuaniśi | soko | utis-uĭa | paĭ | ka | fot́iliao-ru | eloĭ | foĭ-pasoao. |
| market | early | begin-3s.INAN.FUT | by | five | minute-PAU | DET.this | PER-week |
Did you find the distance too great?
| Taa | takeis-oseĭ | okiisaĭ | takeĭ | okio? |
| yes/no | feel-2s.FORM.PST | length | too.much | long |
Hurry, children.
| eme-ńa, | pu | kot́op-ala. |
| child-PL | IMP | hurry-2PL |
Madam, I will obey your command.
| Emokefe, | tokof-eke | op-esa | pakhaĭśaĭ. |
| Madam | obey-1s.FUT | GEN-2s.FORM | command |
Here under this tree they gave their guests a splendid feast.
| Oĭl-emiri, | keĭa | eloĭ | t́io, | iki | tikof-ira | op-emki | sol-torteno-ńa | ufa-lo | oesoĭseto-pu. |
| LOC-here | under | this | tree | CONJ.ADV | threw.event-3PAU.AN.PST | GEN-3DU.FORM | DAT-guest-PL | good-AUG | feast-INDF |
In winter I get up at night, and dress by yellow candlelight.
| Oĭl-tarhuĭa | iki | tues-e | feuń-oĭa | pokaĭ | oĭl-antaĭ | tue | t́asaf-aĭa | kamo-kateu | umu-pasoĭa | aspiaa. |
| LOC-winter | CONJ.ADV | do.habitually-1s | wake-PTCP | REFL | LOC-night | and | dress-PTCP | ADJZ.from-candle | INS-light | yellow |
Tell the last part of that story again.
| Tuka | pu | ion-i | oĺai | pukunuoĭ | ta | koĭasu. |
| again | IMP | tell-2s | last | portion | in | story |
Be quick or you will be too late.
| Kot́op-ala | tuuĭ | puf-o | takeĭ | sau. |
| hurry-2s | or | be-2s.FUT | too | late |
Will you go with us or wait here?
| Eli | fin-o | aĭk-uru | tuuĭ | akiś-ii | oĭl-emiri? |
| which | go-2s.FUT | COM-1PAU.EX | or | wait-2s.FUT | LOC-here |
She was always shabby, often ragged, and on cold days very uncomfortable.
| Tues-ae | puf-aĭa | takoe, | tia | foapatio, | aĭ | oĭl-paso-ńa | kimi | takeĭ | foufa. |
| do.habitually-3s.AN.PST | be-PTCP | shabby | sometimes | ragged | and | LOC-day-PL | cold | very | uncomfortable |
Think first and then act.
| Takaif-a | fiti | es-i. |
| think-2s | before | do-2s |
I stood, a little mite of a girl, upon a chair by the window, and watched the falling snowflakes.
| Ium-ee, | kusa-pu | iam-io | t́it́i-li, | aĺpa | au-pu | aplo | ako, | tue | his-ee | pakasa-ńa | uiseso. |
| stand-1s.PST | girl-INDF | seem-3s.AN.PST | bug-DIM | on | chair-INDF | by | window | and | watch-1s.PST | snow-PL | falling |
Show the guests these shells, my son, and tell them their strange history.
| Op-usa | ulota, | pu | ketis-i | eloĭ-ru | asie-ru | sol-torteno-ńa | tue | ion-i | o-kańa | tanke | okoĭlasu | sol-emuńa. |
| GEN-1s | son | IMP | show-2s | DET-PAU | seashell-PAU | DAT-guest-PL | and | tell-2s | GEN-3PL.AN | weird | history | DAT-3PL.AN.FORM |
Be satisfied with nothing but your best.
| Uĭsim-ame | esokaĭ | sono | iki | op-esa | ufa-maĭ | umu-soniśaĭ. |
| satisfy-2s.FORM | REFL | only | CONJ.ADV | GEN-2s.FORM | good-SUPL | INS-work |
We consider them our faithful friends.
| Take-puaf-uo | iki | kam-iro | op-uki | śoki | aleĭso-ki. |
| strongly-believe-1DU.EX | that | be-3PAU.AN | GEN-1DU.EX | faithful | friend-DU |
We will make this place our home.
| T́okif-eko | op-aĭkuki | piaĭ | sol-emiri. |
| make-1DU.INCL.FUT | GEN-1DU.INCL | home | DAT-this.place |
